RSES: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Reviewed by: Constantin Rezlescu | Associate Professor | UCL Psychology

Introduction

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) is the most widely used measure of global self-esteem in psychological research and clinical practice. Developed by Morris Rosenberg in 1965, this 10-item scale assesses overall feelings of self-worth and self-acceptance. The RSES has become the gold standard for measuring self-esteem, with over 50 years of research supporting its validity and reliability across diverse populations and cultures.

Global Self-Esteem as a Core Construct

The RSES measures global self-esteem, which represents an individual’s overall positive or negative attitude toward the self as a totality. Unlike specific self-evaluations (academic, social, physical), global self-esteem reflects a general sense of personal worth and acceptance that transcends particular domains or situations. This fundamental aspect of self-concept influences motivation, emotional well-being, and behavior across virtually all life areas.

Theoretical Foundation

Rosenberg conceptualized self-esteem as a basic human need and a crucial component of mental health. High self-esteem is characterized by self-respect, considering oneself worthy of happiness, and believing one has value as a person. Low self-esteem involves self-rejection, self-dissatisfaction, and feelings of unworthiness. This bidimensional nature is captured through both positive and negative self-evaluation items.

Universal Significance

Self-esteem has been identified as one of the most important predictors of psychological well-being, life satisfaction, and mental health outcomes. The RSES has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of how self-regard influences academic achievement, interpersonal relationships, career success, and overall life functioning across diverse populations and developmental stages.

📊 Research Foundation: The RSES is the most cited self-esteem measure in scientific literature, with over 15,000 research studies documenting its utility across numerous applications.

Key Features

Assessment Characteristics

• 10 items providing efficient yet comprehensive global self-esteem assessment
• 2-3 minutes administration time
• Ages 12+ through adult with extensive cross-cultural validation
• 4-point Likert scale for balanced response options
• Bidirectional items capturing both positive and negative self-evaluation

Self-Esteem Dimensions Assessed

• Global self-worth – Overall sense of personal value and acceptance
• Self-respect – Regard for oneself as a person of worth
• Self-satisfaction – Contentment with personal characteristics and achievements
• Self-acceptance – Comfortable acknowledgment of both strengths and limitations
• Personal value – Belief in one’s inherent worth as a human being

Universal Applications

• Clinical psychology – Mental health assessment and treatment monitoring
• Educational research – Academic self-concept and achievement prediction
• Developmental psychology – Self-esteem changes across lifespan
• Health psychology – Well-being and health behavior research
• Cross-cultural research – Universal aspects of self-regard across cultures

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Scoring and Interpretation

Response Format

Participants rate their agreement with each statement using a 4-point Likert scale:

• 1 = Strongly disagree
• 2 = Disagree
• 3 = Agree
• 4 = Strongly agree

Complete RSES Items

Positive Self-Evaluation Items:

1. “I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others”

2. “I feel that I have a number of good qualities”

3. “All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a success”

4. “I am able to do things as well as most other people”

5. “I take a positive attitude toward myself”

10. “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”

Negative Self-Evaluation Items (Reversed): 

6. “At times I think I am no good at all” (R) 

7. “I feel I do not have much to be proud of” (R) 

8. “I certainly feel useless at times” (R) 

9. “I wish I could have more respect for myself” (R)

Score Interpretation Guidelines

Total Score Ranges (10-40 scale):

• High Self-Esteem (31-40): Strong, healthy self-regard and self-acceptance
• Moderate Self-Esteem (21-30): Average levels of self-worth
• Low Self-Esteem (10-20): Poor self-regard; potential clinical concern

Alternative Interpretation (0-30 scale):

• High Self-Esteem (21-30): Positive self-evaluation and self-acceptance
• Moderate Self-Esteem (11-20): Mixed feelings about self-worth
• Low Self-Esteem (0-10): Negative self-evaluation; clinical attention warranted

Population Norms:

• General adults: M = 31.2, SD = 5.2 (Schmitt & Allik, 2005)
• College students: M = 30.8, SD = 4.9 (Robins et al., 2001)
• Adolescents: M = 30.1, SD = 5.7 (Orth et al., 2010)
• Clinical samples: M = 24.5, SD = 6.8 (various studies)

Clinical and Research Interpretation

• High scorers: Generally show better mental health, life satisfaction, and resilience
• Low scorers: May be at risk for depression, anxiety, and relationship difficulties
• Moderate scorers: Typical self-evaluation with room for enhancement
• Extreme high scores: May sometimes reflect defensive or unrealistic self-regard

Research Evidence and Psychometric Properties

Reliability Evidence

• Internal consistency: α = 0.88-0.95 across diverse populations (Schmitt & Allik, 2005)
• Test-retest reliability: r = 0.85 (2-week interval), r = 0.75 (6-month interval) (Robins et al., 2001)
• Cross-cultural reliability: Consistent alphas across 53 nations (Schmitt & Allik, 2005)
• Age group reliability: High reliability from adolescence through elderly (Orth et al., 2010)

Factor Structure and Validity

Factor analysis results:

• Unidimensional structure: Single factor with method effects for negative items (Corwyn, 2000)
• Bifactor model: General self-esteem factor with positive/negative method factors (McKay et al., 2014)
• Cross-cultural invariance: Consistent structure across cultures (Schmitt & Allik, 2005)
• Developmental invariance: Similar structure across age groups (Orth et al., 2010)

Convergent validity:

• Life satisfaction: r = 0.50-0.70 (Robins et al., 2001)
• Depression: r = -0.55 to -0.70 (Sowislo & Orth, 2013)
• Anxiety: r = -0.45 to -0.60 (Robins et al., 2001)
• Optimism: r = 0.45-0.65 (Scheier et al., 1994)

Discriminant validity:

• Intelligence: Low correlation r = 0.15-0.25 (Robins et al., 2001)
• Socioeconomic status: Modest correlation r = 0.20-0.30 (Twenge & Campbell, 2002)

Developmental and Lifespan Research

Age-related changes:

• Adolescence: Gradual increase from early to late adolescence (Orth et al., 2010)
• Young adulthood: Continued increase through twenties (Orth et al., 2010)
• Middle age: Peak levels in middle adulthood (Orth et al., 2010)
• Older adulthood: Slight decline in very old age (Orth et al., 2010)

Gender differences:

• Males: Typically score 2-3 points higher than females (Kling et al., 1999)
• Cross-cultural consistency: Gender differences maintained across cultures (Schmitt & Allik, 2005)

Clinical and Mental Health Research

Depression relationship:

• Vulnerability model: Low self-esteem predicts depression onset (Sowislo & Orth, 2013)
• Scar model: Depression episodes lower subsequent self-esteem (Sowislo & Orth, 2013)
• Reciprocal effects: Bidirectional relationship over time (Orth et al., 2009)

Anxiety and stress:

• Protective factor: Higher self-esteem buffers against stress effects (Robins et al., 2001)
• Coping resource: Facilitates adaptive coping strategies (Taylor & Brown, 1988)

Academic and Achievement Research

Academic performance:

• School achievement: r = 0.15-0.30 with grades and test scores (Baumeister et al., 2003)
• Academic motivation: r = 0.25-0.40 with achievement motivation (Robins et al., 2001)
• Educational aspirations: Higher self-esteem predicts higher goals (Robins et al., 2001)

Relationship and Social Research

Interpersonal relationships:

• Relationship satisfaction: r = 0.30-0.50 with relationship quality (Murray et al., 2000)
• Social acceptance: Higher self-esteem predicts better social outcomes (Leary et al., 1995)
• Leadership: r = 0.25-0.40 with leadership emergence (Judge et al., 2002)

Cross-Cultural Research

Cultural universality:

• 53 nations studied: Consistent reliability and validity (Schmitt & Allik, 2005)
• Cultural differences: Variations in mean levels across cultures (Schmitt & Allik, 2005)
• Individualistic cultures: Generally higher self-esteem means (Heine et al., 1999)
• Collectivistic cultures: More modest self-evaluations (Heine et al., 1999)

Usage Guidelines and Applications

Primary Clinical Applications

• Mental health assessment – Screening for depression and anxiety risk
• Treatment outcome monitoring – Track self-esteem changes in therapy
• Case conceptualization – Understand client’s self-regard and self-concept
• Risk assessment – Low self-esteem as vulnerability factor
• Therapeutic planning – Target self-esteem enhancement when appropriate

Clinical Decision Support

• Scores below 20: May indicate significant self-esteem problems requiring attention
• Therapeutic focus: Consider self-esteem work when scores consistently low
• Treatment monitoring: Track improvements in self-regard across therapy
• Relapse prevention: Build healthy self-esteem as protective factor
• Comorbidity assessment: Often relevant in depression and anxiety disorders

Educational Applications

• Student counseling: Assess academic self-concept and motivation
• Intervention planning: Target self-esteem enhancement for struggling students
• Bullying assessment: Evaluate impact on student self-regard
• Career counseling: Understand confidence in abilities and potential
• Program evaluation: Measure effectiveness of self-esteem interventions

Research Applications

• Clinical trials: Outcome measure for psychotherapy and intervention studies
• Developmental research: Track self-esteem changes across lifespan
• Cross-cultural studies: Compare self-regard across cultural groups
• Health psychology: Relationship between self-esteem and health behaviors
• Social psychology: Self-esteem in interpersonal and group contexts

Health Psychology Uses

• Health behavior prediction: Self-esteem influences health-related choices
• Medical compliance: Higher self-esteem predicts better adherence
• Chronic illness adaptation: Self-regard affects adjustment to health conditions
• Prevention programs: Build self-esteem as protective health factor
• Recovery processes: Monitor self-esteem during health recovery

Organizational Applications

• Employee wellbeing: Assess workplace self-regard and confidence
• Leadership development: Self-esteem component of leadership effectiveness
• Team dynamics: Understanding individual confidence contributions
• Performance evaluation: Self-regard influences work performance
• Training programs: Measure confidence-building intervention effects

Limitations and Considerations

• Socially desirable responding: Participants may inflate self-reports
• Cultural bias: Items may reflect Western individualistic values
• Ceiling effects: Limited discrimination among high self-esteem individuals
• State vs. trait: May be influenced by temporary mood or circumstances

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Legal and Copyright Information

Copyright and Usage Responsibility: Check that you have the proper rights and permissions to use this assessment tool in your research. This may include purchasing appropriate licenses, obtaining permissions from authors/copyright holders, or ensuring your usage falls within fair use guidelines.

Proper Attribution: When using or referencing this scale, cite the original development:

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.

External Links and Resources

Self-Esteem Research – Wikipedia

References

Primary Development:

• Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.

Validation Research:

• Schmitt, D. P., & Allik, J. (2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 53 nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 623-642.
• Robins, R. W., et al. (2001). Global self-esteem across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 16(2), 321-329.

Psychometric Studies:

• Corwyn, R. F. (2000). The factor structure of global self-esteem among adolescents and adults. Journal of Research in Personality, 34(4), 357-379.
• McKay, M. T., et al. (2014). The structure of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in youth. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 30(2), 132-138.

Developmental Research:

• Orth, U., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Robins, R. W. (2010). Self-esteem development from young adulthood to old age: a cohort-sequential longitudinal study. Journal of personality and social psychology, 98(4), 645.
• Orth, U., et al. (2009). Low self-esteem is a risk factor for depressive symptoms from young adulthood to old age. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(3), 472-478.

Clinical Applications:

• Sowislo, J. F., & Orth, U. (2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 213-240.